RX = School, Healthy Jobs, and Wholesome Recreation
Most young people stayed involved in society and the war effort, such as these members of the High School Victory Corps collecting salvage material. (Folder 18, Box 35, Defense Council Records, OSA)
A casual observer during the war could get
the impression from newspapers,
magazines, and other sources that an entire generation of youth
was stampeding off a cliff into
an oblivion of delinquency, debauchery
and criminality. Certainly, juvenile delinquency was
on the rise but sensational stories
fueled a misconception that the majority of the youth generation was on the wrong track - that listening to Frank Sinatra was a ticket to delinquency or that
dancing the jitterbug was "emulating sexual foreplay." In truth, while some youth captured the headlines with
scandalous behavior, most were
helping their families cope with the burdens of the home front while staying in school and often volunteering for various tasks to further the war effort. Government authorities, wanting to do everything possible to maintain well adjusted and productive young people, developed
policies and programs to keep them in school, working in healthy jobs, and taking part in wholesome recreation.
Educational Efforts
Although education leaders devised ways to accomplish the goal,
most efforts to get young people to stay
in school centered on the need to make the curriculum challenging,
involving
and relevant. By doing this,
they hoped to stem the tide of decreasing enrollment nationally during the war, and by extension reduce juvenile delinquency. By 1944, officials recorded an enrollment drop of one million students since the beginning of the war, a loss of almost 14%. At the same time, they wanted to prepare high school students, particularly juniors and seniors, to be productive in the war effort after graduation, either in the armed forces
or
civilian defense or community service jobs.
Footnote 1
The High School Victory Corps emblem included symbols representing the five major occupational divisions of study. (Folder 18, Box 35, Defense Council Records, OSA)
Federal officials developed plans
for a High School Victory Corps to
be administered by schools around the country such as the Portland school district, which distributed its own guidelines in 1942. The program's objectives centered on school-based training of high school boys and girls for active participation in military service, war production, and essential community service occupations. Training included physical fitness, military drill, science and mathematics, and other subjects. It usually guided students into one of five divisions: air service preparation for aviation cadets or aircraft repair; sea service for the Navy or Merchant Marine; land service for the Army or Marine Corps; production service for trades and war industries; or community service for professional positions such as engineer, doctors, and nurses. Each division had its own set of required and optional classes catered to the needs of the chosen occupational path.
Footnote 2
Members of the High School Victory Corps, wearing
uniforms of the service divisions, stand at attention as a flag is raised. (Folder 18, Box 35, Defense Council Records, OSA)
Participation by schools and students was voluntary, but an American Legion survey conducted early in 1943 found significant activity and plans across the state. The Legion sent the survey to 250 Oregon high schools, of which 232 responded. Of those, 86 schools already had set up a Victory Corps program with another 96 schools planning to implement it the following semester. Schools diverged significantly in what components they offered. Thus, 78 schools offered a "general membership" in the corps, with varying offerings for the five divisions: 41 schools offered air service training; 28 provided sea service; 39 offered land service; 44 provided production service; and 53 gave students training in community service curriculum. Schools were split on offering military drill, with 47 offering it and 46 not providing it as an option, according to the survey.
Footnote 3
By 1944 officials were still
disappointed
with the ongoing drop in school enrollment nationwide. To attack the problem, they launched the National Go-To-School
Drive of 1944-45. Typical of wartime campaigns,
the effort sought to educate and mobilize students, parents, teachers, administrators, community leaders, and others to
think about the importance of staying in school. Although the effort acknowledged
that some students need to work, both for financial support and for war production, officials wanted to limit the type and amount of work
so
it would not damage educational goals. The program suggested
"action ideas" such as radio programs and posters
targeted at
community groups. It enlisted quotations from leading generals and educators about the importance of staying in school. And it even resorted to scare tactics by cataloging accidents frequently caused by "immature, reckless, and irresponsible young workers." For example, a campaign handbook
recounted the story of a "15-year-old boy on the night shift in a laundry [who] tried to extract a tangled sheet from an operating mangle. He was drawn into the mangle. His right arm was torn off above the elbow."
Footnote 4
Youth Work Programs and Regulations
Volunteers in the Junior Citizens Service Corps could serve in ways such as war bond drives and hospital work. They were expected to tend to personal responsibilities, including school work, first. (Folder 4, Box 31, Defense Council Records, OSA)
The National Go-To-School Drive and other efforts to keep students in school saw the need for balance in the approach to work and school. Too much of any kind of work was damaging, as was the case of one youth who was putting in 73 hours a week on school and work; the wrong kind of work clearly was a recipe for disaster, either physically or morally; and too little work reminded one Oregon State Defense Council official of the old saying: "Satan finds some mischief still for idle hands to do." Along these lines, the U.S. Office of Civilian Defense created the Junior Citizens Service Corps for young people under the age of 16. Patterned as a junior branch of the U.S. Citizens Service Corps, the program enlisted volunteers for unpaid work in a range of activities from collecting Victory Books and salvaged materials to working in hospitals and canvassing for war bond drives.
Footnote 5
Although the designers of the program encouraged local groups to adapt it to their particular needs, there was a basic pattern to the Corps. Boys and girls needed to meet three conditions to claim membership. Foremost was their obligation to be good citizens. To do this, a Corps handbook noted, "a young citizen [needed to be] doing his best in school work, home responsibilities, and to safeguard his personal health." Underscoring the need to fight what many saw as the moral drift into juvenile delinquency, officials reminded
potential Corps member that "personal responsibilities as a good citizen are not to be neglected for community services." In addition to that fundamental condition, participants needed to be in training for a particular community service project and they needed to pledge to do Corps work at least one hour a week.
Footnote 6
While many young people worked in factories, officials preferred they do their part by helping with war services such as salvage or growing Victory Gardens. (Folder 4, Box 31, Defense Council Records, OSA)
Beyond volunteer work, officials recognized the reality of large numbers of young people entering the paying job force and tried to steer the results to limit the damage. By 1944 nearly three million people under 18 years old were working full or part time. Almost one million of these were only 14 or 15 years old, about 20%
of the children of that age. During the summer the ranks of employed youth swelled with work in agricultural programs such as the youth unit of the U.S. Crop Corps called the Victory Farm Volunteers. Federal Department of Labor (DOL) officials pressed for strict limits related to hours of work. For instance, labor officials warned employers to not work 16- and 17-year-olds more than 28 hours per week during school sessions and 48 hours otherwise while 14- and 15-year-olds were to be limited to no more than 18 hours per week during school and 40 hours otherwise. Officials frowned on late night work also, saying that the older group was to quit by 10 p.m. and the younger group by 7 p.m. Actual observance of these limits varied wildly according to local circumstances, both nationally and in Oregon.
Footnote 7
By late 1944 conditions had changed enough that the U.S. Department of Labor lobbied states to establish
a basic 16-year-old minimum age for employment in manufacturing or during school
hours. Officials looked forward to the postwar period when millions of veterans would be streaming back to the
domestic workforce. Noting that many returning veterans were
uneducated, disabled, or in some way "physically below par," planners
didn't want them to have to compete with 14- and 15-year-old youths for low
skill jobs. This problem was sure to be exacerbated
by the "inevitable reduction in manpower needs that will accompany the termination of hostilities and the curtailment of war production..." Thus,
officials promoted the plan as a win-win proposition: young people would be allowed to have "better mental and physical development" while veterans would be rewarded with jobs instead of unemployment lines. According to DOL research, 33 states still had a basic age of less than 16-years-old for
employment in manufacturing or during school hours. Oregon was one of 28 states that set the bar at 14-years-old.
Footnote 8
Wholesome Recreational Outlets
Youth canteens provided supervised, wholesome settings for dancing and other popular activities. (Folder 5, Box 31, Defense Council Records, OSA)
Along with engaging young people with a relevant education and moderate work opportunities, most experts advocated for a robust recreational program to stave off juvenile delinquency. The youth of America were clear about their recreational preferences according to a survey by Fortune magazine in November 1942: "Ahead of any specific sport came dancing and movies for both boys and girls. After these the favorite pastimes are running around with friends, gab sessions, and the like." Officials saw advantages to staging events such as dances and socials on a local basis, saying that "the object is to keep the boys and girls in their own neighborhood with their own neighborhood group." This would discourage young people from "wandering around on the streets in the afternoons and evenings" and hopefully keep them away from "places of doubtful recreational value and at the same time will satisfy their desire for gaiety and amusement."
Footnote 9
Many communities met the
need for healthy social outlets by setting up
canteens
designed for young people. The national
Associated Youth-Serving Organizations, Inc. (AYSO) promoted canteens
as part of a well rounded program of youth services by schools, churches
and other entities. The AYSO emphasized that young people needed to be
involved planning and managing local canteen programs to get the best
results. Yet, they also stressed the need for oversight in the
form of adult matrons or hostesses, saying that "competent
professional adult leadership skilled in the supervision of young people is urgently recommended." The key was to provide
guidance in a wise and "unobtrusive" way that didn't alienate young people and cause them to leave in favor of less savory places. Officials
never lost sight of why the canteens needed to be co-recreational: "There is no doubt but that this is one of the chief desires of youth - for boys and girls to be together."
Footnote 10
Radios and juke boxes helped create a festive and lively mood at youth centers. (Folder 5, Box 31, Defense Council Records, OSA)
The ideal teen canteen would have several popular features that mimicked the canteens designed for servicemen. According to AYSO officials: "Youth likes to feel that it has a place similar to that of a soldier or sailor and with the same types of activities. Anything in the form of decoration or program that is like those in the servicemen's clubs will be helpful." Of course, the opportunity to dance was first on the list. Lacking this, many young people would simply ignore a canteen. Centers also featured juke boxes to go with the dancing and to set the mood. These coin-operated record players had an added advantage of providing money needed to operate a canteen. Officials also suggested that small orchestras could be brought in for special events to add to the attraction. Likewise, snack bars could bring in money to keep a center afloat, but experts recommended that prices be kept as low as possible to not drive patrons away. In design, these snack bars often imitated a "cocktail bar" with milk, soft drinks, and other non-alcoholic beverages served. A game
room
could be a good resource to bring in the youth of a neighborhood. Many of these offered such pastimes as badminton, table tennis, checkers, Monopoly, chess, and other games as well as pianos, magazines, and other offerings.
Footnote 11
Though much of the reason behind teen canteens or centers was to keep
young people away from the temptations that led to juvenile delinquency,
some experts saw a real benefit for the quiet and well-behaved boys and girls, a "group which does not get very much publicity." They said that "hang-out rooms" at teen centers could provide an "informal and pleasant" place for these young people to interact without their normal self-consciousness:
Oregon officials also saw the wisdom of expanding recreational facilities targeted at teenagers. A blue ribbon committee formed by Governor Snell met in December 1943 to explore ways to improve the offerings. One member, Warren McMinnimee of the State District Attorneys' Association, highlighted how far the state had to go: "Only eleven counties out of thirty-six have places for children to go, other than commercialized recreation centers. I would strongly recommend opening schools and churches for recreational purposes."
Footnote 13
Portland and other Oregon cities developed centers for teens to recreate or just hang out together. (Folder 5, Box 31, Defense Council Records, OSA)
In fact, the Portland school board recommended that six schools be opened on an experimental basis during the next month for a program of weekend recreational and craft classes. The city
parks bureau volunteered to furnish
trained supervisors while members
of the parent-teacher organization offered to act as chaperones.
The plan was to make the facilities open to any student or school
drop-out "who conforms to the correct social standards." The
parks bureau also teamed up with the Portland housing authority to provide
neighborhood recreational programs in church, community and school buildings throughout the city. The centers
typically were open from 9 a.m. to 10 p.m. but were stretched to
the limit in terms of supervision, with a program official revealing that "more staff workers are needed desperately." Other
schools were singled out for offering successful recreational facilities for young people. The Dalles and Grants Pass had centers patterned after USO canteens and they reported "quite satisfactory" results.
Footnote 14
Related Documents
"On Teen-Age Canteens" Memorandum, Associated Youth-Serving Organizations, Inc., Oct. 1944. Folder 5, Box 31, Defense Council Records, OSA.
Notes